This dissertation presents a comprehensive study on the advancement of astrophysical radio, microwave, and terahertz instrumentation/simulations with three pivotal components.First, theoretical simulations of high metallicity galaxies are conducted using the supercomputing resources of Purdue University and NASA. These simulations model the evolution of a gaseous cloud akin to a nascent galaxy, incorporating variables such as kinetic energy, mass, radiation fields, magnetic fields, and turbulence. The objective is to scrutinize the spatial distribution of various isotopic elements in galaxies with unusually high metallicities and measure the effects of magnetic fields on their structural distribution. Next, I proceed with an investigation of the technology used for reading out Microwave Kinetic Inductance Detectors (MKIDs) and their dynamic range limitations tied to the current method of FPGA-based readout firmware. In response, I introduce an innovative algorithm that employs PID controllers and phase-locked loops for tracking the natural frequencies of resonator pixels, thereby eliminating the need for costly mid-observation frequency recalibrations which currently hinder the widespread use of MKID arrays. Finally, I unveil the novel Spectroscopic Lock-in Firmware (SpLiF) algorithm designed to address the pernicious low-frequency noise plaguing emergent quantum-limited detection technologies. The SpLiF algorithm harmonizes the mathematical principles of lock-in amplification with the capabilities of a Fast Fourier Transform to protect spectral information from pink noise and other low-frequency noise contributors inherent to most detection systems. The efficacy of the SpLiF algorithm is substantiated through rigorous mathematical formulation, software simulations, firmware simulations, and benchtop lab results.

Building on the legacies of Planck and the Atacama Cosmology Telescope, among others, future cosmic microwave background (CMB) observatories are poised to revolutionize our understanding of the cosmos by implementing proven detector systems at scales previously incomprehensible. Leading the charge is Simons Observatory (SO), a suite of four telescopes located at 5,200 meters elevation in the Atacama Desert of Chile. With more than 60,000 transition-edge sensor (TES) detectors deployed in six frequency bands across three half-meter telescopes and one 6-meter telescope, SO will observe CMB temperature and polarization at small and large scales with greater sensitivity and control over systematics than has yet been achieved. In deploying more detectors than all other previous CMB experiments combined, SO must also chart new territory in the realm of TES readout. Breakthroughs in microwave multiplexing (μ-mux) readout technology now allow the simultaneous readout of approximately 1,000 detectors on a single set of cables, far surpassing the capabilities of previous systems. For the Large Aperture Telescope’s >30,000 detectors, this translates to a total of just 45 input/output lines. A crucial piece of the SO readout architecture is the Universal Readout Harness (URH), a "plug-and-play" assembly that contains the 300K-4K elements. Configurable to support the readout requirements of each receiver, each URH can support up to 24 readout lines. In addition to the radiofrequency (RF) components, the URH can also support up to 12x50-wire DC cable looms, which provide detector and amplifier power. This dissertation describes the construction and testing of the 6 URHs required for nominal SO operations, as well as the on-site integration of the first Small Aperture Telescope. Separately, an optical stacking analysis of quiescent galaxies at z~1 using images from the Dark Energy Survey is presented. Motivated by a desire to better understand the evolution of massive elliptical galaxies, high signal-to-noise images generated from averaging ~100,000 individual galaxy cutouts are used to calculate surface brightness profiles in the grizY bands. Additionally, the extragalactic background light is derived from these stacks and is found to be in good agreement with previous measurements.

TolTEC is a three-band millimeter-wave, imaging polarimeter installed on the 50 m diameter Large Millimeter Telescope (LMT) in Mexico. This camera simultaneously images the focal plane at three wavebands centered at 1.1 mm (270 GHz), 1.4 mm (214 GHz), and 2.0 mm (150 GHz). TolTEC combines polarization-sensitive kinetic inductance detectors (KIDs) with the LMT to produce high resolution images of the sky in both total intensity and polarization. I present an overview of the TolTEC camera’s optical system and my contributions to the optomechanical design and characterization of the instrument. As part of my work with TolTEC, I designed the mounting structures for the cold optics within the cryostat accounting for thermal contraction to ensure the silicon lenses do not fracture when cooled. I also designed the large warm optics that re-image the light from the telescope, requiring me to perform static and vibration analyses to ensure the mounts correctly supported the mirrors. I discuss the various methods used to align the optics and the cryostat in the telescope. I discuss the Zemax optical model of TolTEC and compare it with measurements of the instrument to help with characterization. Finally, I present the results of stacking galaxies on data from the Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT) to measure the Sunyaev-Zel’dovich (SZ) effect and estimate the thermal energy in the gas around high red-shift, quiescent galaxies as an example of science that could be done with TolTEC data. Since the camera combines high angular resolution with images at three wavelengths near distinct SZ features, TolTEC will provide precise measurements to learn more about these types of galaxies.

Millimeter astronomy unlocks a window to the earliest produced light in the universe, called the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB). Through analysis of the CMB, overarching features about the universe's evolution and structure can be better understood. Modern millimeter-wave instruments are constantly seeking improvements to sensitivity in the effort to further constrain small CMB anisotropies in both temperature and polarization. As a result, detailed investigations into lesser-known processes of the universe are now becoming possible. Here I present work on the millimeter-wavelength analysis of z ≈ 1 quiescent galaxy samples, whose conspicuous quenching of star formation is likely the result of active galactic nuclei (AGN) accretion onto supermassive black holes. Such AGN feedback would heat up a galaxy's surrounding circumgalactic medium (CGM). Obscured by signal from cold dust, I isolate the thermal Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect, a CMB temperature anisotropy produced by hot ionized gas, to measure the CGM's average thermal energy and differentiate between AGN accretion models. I find a median thermal energy that best corresponds with moderate to high levels of AGN feedback. In addition, the radial profile of cold dust associated with the galaxy samples appears to be consistent with large-scale clustering of the universe. In the endeavor of increasingly efficient millimeter-wave detectors, I also describe the design process for novel multichroic dual-polarization antennas. Paired with extended hemispherical lenslets, simulations of these superconducting antennas show the potential to match or exceed performance compared to similar designs already in use. A prototype detector array, with dual-bowtie and hybrid trapezoidal antennas coupled to microwave kinetic inductance detectors (MKIDs) has been made and is under preparation to be tested in the near future. Finally, I also present my contributions to the cryogenic readout design of the Ali CMB Polarization Telescope (AliCPT), a large-scale CMB telescope geared towards searching the Northern Hemisphere sky for a unique `B-mode' polarization expected to be produced by primordial gravitational waves. Cryogenic readout is responsible for successful interfacing between room temperature electronics and sensitive detectors operating on AliCPT's sub-Kelvin temperature focal plane. The development of millimeter-wave instruments and future endeavors show great potential for the overall scientific community.

The distribution of galaxies traces the structure of underlying dark matter, and carries signatures of both the cosmology that evolved the universe as well as details of how galaxies interact with their environment and each other. There are many ways to measure the clustering of galaxies, each with unique strengths, uses, theoretical background, and connection to other physical concepts. One uncommon clustering statistic is the Void Probability Function (VPF): it simply asks, how likely is a circle/sphere of a given size to be empty in your galaxy sample? Simple and efficient to calculate, the VPF is tied to all higher order volume-averaged correlation functions as the 0$^{\text{th}}$ moment of count-in-cells, and encodes information from higher order clustering that the robust two-point correlation function cannot always capture. Using simulations of Lyman-alpha emitting galaxies across either redshift history or the epoch of reionization, this work asks: how powerful is the VPF itself? When can and should it be used for galaxy clustering? What unique constraints or guidelines can it give for the pacing of reionization, in the Lyman-$\alpha$ Galaxies in the Epoch of Reionization (LAGER) narrowband survey or across the Roman Space Telescope grism? This work provides practical guidelines for creating and carrying out clustering studies using the the VPF, and motivates the use of the VPF for reionization. The VPF of LAEs can complement LAGER constraints for the end of reionization, and thoroughly inform the timing and pace of reionization with Roman.

The interactions that take place in the ionized halo of gas surrounding galaxies, known as the circumgalactic medium (CGM), dictates the host galaxy's evolution throughout cosmic time. These interactions are powered by inflows and outflows that enable the transfer of matter and energy, and are driven by feedback processes such as accretion, galactic winds, star formation and active galactic nuclei. Such feedback and the interactions that ensue leads to the formation of non-equilibrium chemistry in the CGM. This non-equilibrium chemistry is implied by observations that reveal the highly non-uniform distribution of lower ionization state species, such as Mg II and Si II, along with widespread higher ionization state material, such as O VI, that is difficult to match with equilibrium models. Given these observations, the CGM must be viewed as a dynamic, multiphase medium, such as occurs in the presence of turbulence. To better understand this ionized halo, I used the non-equilibrium chemistry package, MAIHEM, to perform hydrodynamic (HD) simulations. I carried out a suite of HD simulations with varying levels of artificially driven, homogeneous turbulence to learn how this influences the non-equilibrium chemistry that develops under certain conditions present in the CGM. I found that a level of turbulence consistent with velocities implied by observations replicated many observed features within the CGM, such as low and high ionization state material existing simultaneously. At higher levels of turbulence, however, simulations lead to a thermal runaway effect. To address this issue, and conduct more realistic simulations of this environment, I modeled a stratified medium in a Milky Way mass Navarro-Frenk-White (NFW) gravitational potential with turbulence that decreased radially. In this setup and with similar levels of turbulence, I alleviated the amount of thermal runaway that occurs, while also matching observed ionization states. I then performed magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) simulations with the same model setup that additionally included rotation in the inner halo. Magnetic fields facilitate the development of an overall hotter CGM that forms dense structures within where magnetic pressure dominates. Ion ratios in these regions resemble detections and limits gathered from recent observations. Furthermore, magnetic fields allow for the diffusion of angular momentum throughout the extended disk and gas cooling onto the disk, allowing for the maintenance of the disk at late times.

The lives of high-mass stars end with core-collapse supernovae, which distribute energy and chemical elements into the interstellar medium. This process is integral to the Galactic ecosystem, since stars and planets will form from the enriched interstellar medium. Since most supernovae are detected at intergalactic distances, opportunities to examine them in detail are rare. Computer simulations and observations of supernova remnants are frequently employed to study these events and their influence on the universe. I explore the topic of supernovae using a multi-pronged approach, beginning with an examination of the core-collapse supernova engine. The radioisotopes 44Ti and 56Ni, produced in the innermost ejecta, provide a probe of this central engine. Using a three-dimensional supernova simulation with nucleosynthesis post-processing, I examine the production of these isotopes and their thermodynamic histories. Since production of 44Ti is especially sensitive to the explosion conditions, insights can be gained by comparing the model with 44Ti observations from supernova remnant Cassiopeia A. Next, I consider supernova remnants as potential sources of high-energy neutrinos within the Milky Way galaxy. The developing field of neutrino astronomy has yet to identify the origins of the diffuse neutrino flux first detected by the IceCube Neutrino Observatory in 2013. In principle, high-energy Galactic sources like supernova remnants could contribute measurably to this flux. I also consider Galactic open clusters, environments which are rich in supernovae and other energetic phenomena. Statistical analysis finds no evidence of causal association between these objects and the IceCube neutrino events. I conclude with a series of asymmetric three-dimensional supernova models, presented as a comparative analysis of how supernova morphology affects nucleosynthetic yields. Both real supernovae and simulations frequently exhibit aspherical morphologies, but the detailed thermodynamic consequences and the ultimate effects on yields are poorly understood. The simulations include symmetric and bipolar explosion geometries for both 15- and 20-solar-mass progenitor stars. Across the spectrum of models, I show how small changes in the peak temperatures and densities experienced by ejecta can influence the production of notable isotopes such as 44Ti.

The interaction between galaxies and the surrounding gas plays a key role in galaxy formation and evolution. Feedback processes driven by star formation and active galactic nuclei facilitate the exchange of mass and energy between the galaxy and the circumgalactic medium through inflowing and outflowing gas. These outflows have a significant impact on the star formation rate and metallicity of the galaxy. Observations of outflows have provided evidence that these outflows are multi-phase in nature, identifying both low energy ions such as Mg II and C III and high energy ions such as O VI. The underlying physics maintaining the two phases as well as the ionization mechanism for these phases remains unclear. In order to better understand galactic outflows, hydrodynamic simulations are used to study the evolution of wind-cloud interactions. In this work, I carried out a suite of magnetohydrodynamic simulations to characterize the influence of magnetic fields on the evolution and lifetime of cold clouds. I found magnetic fields either provided little improvement to cloud stability over other influences such as radiative cooling or accelerated cloud disruption by pushing cloud material in the direction orthogonal to the wind and magnetic fields. To investigate the ionization mechanism of the material within outflows I first considered estimating the column densities of various ions within wind-cloud simulations with the post-processing tool Trident. Under the assumption of ionization equilibrium, the simulations did not reproduce the observed absorption profiles demonstrating the need for a more detailed treatment of the ionization processes. I then performed a new set of simulations with the non-equilibrium chemistry solver, MAIHEM. The column densities produced in the non-equilibrium model alter the evolution of the cloud and highlight the increased ionization along the boundary of the cloud.

A key open problem within galaxy evolution is to understand the evolution of galaxies towards quiescence. This work investigates the suppression of star-formation through shocks and turbulence at low-redshift, and at higher-redshifts, this work investigates the use of features within quiescent galaxy spectra to redshift estimation, and passive evolution of aging stellar populations to understand their star-formation histories.

At low-$z$, this work focuses on the analysis of optical integral field spectroscopy data of a nearby ($z\sim0.0145$) unusual merging system, called the Taffy system because of radio emission that stretches between the two galaxies. This system, although a recent major-merger of gas-rich spirals, exhibits an atypically low star-formation rate and infrared luminosity. Strong evidence of shock heating as a mechanism for these atypical properties is presented. This result (in conjunction with many others) from the nearby Universe provides evidence for shocks and turbulence, perhaps due to mergers, as an effective feedback mechanism for the suppression of star-formation.

At intermediate and higher-$z$, this work focuses on the analysis of Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) G800L grism spectroscopy and photometry of galaxies with a discernible 4000\AA\ break. The usefulness of 4000\AA/Balmer breaks as redshift indicators by comparing photometric, grism, and spectrophotometric redshifts (SPZs) to ground-based spectroscopic redshifts, is quantified. A spectral energy distribution (SED) fitting pipeline that is optimized for combined HST grism and photometric data, developed for this project, is presented. This pipeline is a template-fitting based routine which accounts for correlated data between neighboring points within grism spectra via the covariance matrix formalism, and also accounts for galaxy morphology along the dispersion direction. Evidence is provided showing that SPZs typically improve the accuracy of photometric redshifts by $\sim$17--60\%. For future space-based observatories like the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope (formerly the Wide Field InfraRed Survey Telescope, i.e., WFIRST) and Euclid, this work predicts $\sim$700--4400 galaxies\,degree$^{-2}$, within $1.6 \lesssim z \lesssim 3.4$, for galaxies with 4000\AA\ breaks and continuum-based redshifts accurate to $\lesssim$2\%.

This work also investigates the star-formation histories of massive galaxies ($\mathrm{M_s \geq 10^{10.5}\, M_\odot}$). This is done through the analysis of the strength of the Magnesium absorption feature, Mgb, at $\sim$5175\AA. This analysis is carried out on stacks of HST ACS G800L grism data, stacked for galaxies binned on a color vs stellar mass plane.

In the upcoming decade, powerful new astronomical facilities such as the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), the Square Kilometer Array (SKA), and ground-based 30-meter telescopes will open up the epoch of reionization to direct astronomical observation. One of the primary tools used to understand the bulk astrophysical properties of the high-redshift universe are empirically-derived star-forming laws, which relate observed luminosity to fundamental astrophysical quantities such as star formation rate. The radio/infrared relation is one of the more mysterious of these relations: despite its somewhat uncertain astrophysical origins, this relation is extremely tight and linear, with 0.3 dex of scatter over five orders of magnitude in galaxy luminosity. The effects of primordial metallicities on canonical star-forming laws is an open question: a growing body of evidence suggests that the current empirical star forming laws may not be valid in the unenriched, metal-poor environment of the very early universe.

In the modern universe, nearby dwarf galaxies with less than 1/10th the Solar metal abundance provide an opportunity to recalibrate our star formation laws and study the astrophysics of extremely metal-deficient (XMD) environments in detail. I assemble a sample of nearby dwarf galaxies, all within 100 megaparsecs, with nebular oxygen abundances between 1/5th and 1/50th Solar. I identify the subsample of these galaxies with space-based mid- and far-infrared data, and investigate the effects of extreme metallicities on the infrared-radio relationship. For ten of these galaxies, I have acquired 40 hours of observations with the Jansky Very Large Array (JVLA). C-band (4-8 GHz) radio continuum emission is detected from all 10 of these galaxies. These represent the first radio continuum detections from seven galaxies in this sample: Leo A, UGC 4704, HS 0822+3542, SBS 0940+544, and SBS 1129+476. The radio continuum in these galaxies is strongly associated with the presence of optical H-alpha emission, with spectral slopes suggesting a mix of thermal and non-thermal sources. I use the ratio of the radio and far-infrared emission to investigate behavior of the C-band (4-8 GHz) radio/infrared relation at metallicities below 1/10th Solar.

I compare the low metallicity sample with the 4.8 GHz radio/infrared relationship from the KINGFISHER nearby galaxy sample Tabatabaei et al. 2017 and to the 1.4 GHz radio/infrared relationship from the blue compact dwarf galaxy sample of Wu et al. 2008. The infrared/radio ratio q of the low metallicity galaxies is below the average q of star forming galaxies in the modern universe. I compare these galaxies' infrared and radio luminosities to their corresponding Halpha luminosities, and find that both the infrared/Halpha and the radio/H-alpha ratios are reduced by nearly 1 dex in the low metallicity sample vs. higher metallicity galaxies; however the deficit is not straightforwardly interpreted as a metallicity effect.