This dissertation presents a comprehensive study on the advancement of astrophysical radio, microwave, and terahertz instrumentation/simulations with three pivotal components.First, theoretical simulations of high metallicity galaxies are conducted using the supercomputing resources of Purdue University and NASA. These simulations model the evolution of a gaseous cloud akin to a nascent galaxy, incorporating variables such as kinetic energy, mass, radiation fields, magnetic fields, and turbulence. The objective is to scrutinize the spatial distribution of various isotopic elements in galaxies with unusually high metallicities and measure the effects of magnetic fields on their structural distribution. Next, I proceed with an investigation of the technology used for reading out Microwave Kinetic Inductance Detectors (MKIDs) and their dynamic range limitations tied to the current method of FPGA-based readout firmware. In response, I introduce an innovative algorithm that employs PID controllers and phase-locked loops for tracking the natural frequencies of resonator pixels, thereby eliminating the need for costly mid-observation frequency recalibrations which currently hinder the widespread use of MKID arrays. Finally, I unveil the novel Spectroscopic Lock-in Firmware (SpLiF) algorithm designed to address the pernicious low-frequency noise plaguing emergent quantum-limited detection technologies. The SpLiF algorithm harmonizes the mathematical principles of lock-in amplification with the capabilities of a Fast Fourier Transform to protect spectral information from pink noise and other low-frequency noise contributors inherent to most detection systems. The efficacy of the SpLiF algorithm is substantiated through rigorous mathematical formulation, software simulations, firmware simulations, and benchtop lab results.

The interactions that take place in the ionized halo of gas surrounding galaxies, known as the circumgalactic medium (CGM), dictates the host galaxy's evolution throughout cosmic time. These interactions are powered by inflows and outflows that enable the transfer of matter and energy, and are driven by feedback processes such as accretion, galactic winds, star formation and active galactic nuclei. Such feedback and the interactions that ensue leads to the formation of non-equilibrium chemistry in the CGM. This non-equilibrium chemistry is implied by observations that reveal the highly non-uniform distribution of lower ionization state species, such as Mg II and Si II, along with widespread higher ionization state material, such as O VI, that is difficult to match with equilibrium models. Given these observations, the CGM must be viewed as a dynamic, multiphase medium, such as occurs in the presence of turbulence. To better understand this ionized halo, I used the non-equilibrium chemistry package, MAIHEM, to perform hydrodynamic (HD) simulations. I carried out a suite of HD simulations with varying levels of artificially driven, homogeneous turbulence to learn how this influences the non-equilibrium chemistry that develops under certain conditions present in the CGM. I found that a level of turbulence consistent with velocities implied by observations replicated many observed features within the CGM, such as low and high ionization state material existing simultaneously. At higher levels of turbulence, however, simulations lead to a thermal runaway effect. To address this issue, and conduct more realistic simulations of this environment, I modeled a stratified medium in a Milky Way mass Navarro-Frenk-White (NFW) gravitational potential with turbulence that decreased radially. In this setup and with similar levels of turbulence, I alleviated the amount of thermal runaway that occurs, while also matching observed ionization states. I then performed magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) simulations with the same model setup that additionally included rotation in the inner halo. Magnetic fields facilitate the development of an overall hotter CGM that forms dense structures within where magnetic pressure dominates. Ion ratios in these regions resemble detections and limits gathered from recent observations. Furthermore, magnetic fields allow for the diffusion of angular momentum throughout the extended disk and gas cooling onto the disk, allowing for the maintenance of the disk at late times.