This dissertation demarks the start of an empirical study of toxic romantic relationships. Three primary tasks were undertaken: (1) uncover characteristics of toxic romantic relationships, (2) develop a Toxic Relationship Behaviors scale, and (3) determine how toxic relationship behaviors and coping behaviors associate with breakup distress and post-traumatic growth following breakup. For aim 1, an inductive qualitative analysis examined toxic romantic relationships behaviors mentioned in Reddit and Quora threads. Data (n = 1,615) were classified under 14 themes representing toxic relationship behaviors and indicated one partner predominantly engaged in toxic relationship behaviors, characterized by power, control, and self-centeredness. For aim 2, a survey was launched to develop a Toxic Relationship Behavior scale and investigate relationships among toxic relationship behaviors, breakup distress, post-breakup coping behaviors, and post-traumatic growth. Exploratory factor analysis showed six Toxic Relationship Behavior subscales: (1) isolating, (2) displaying righteous self-centeredness, (3) walking on eggshells, (4) criticizing and conveying contempt, (5) surveilling, and (6) engaging in intermittent reinforcement. For aim 3, a quantitative study (n = 168) was conducted using the Toxic Relationship Behaviors scale to determine how toxic relationship behaviors and coping behaviors associate with breakup distress and post-traumatic growth. Results indicated emotional breakup distress was positively associated with focusing on the ex and seeking social support. Cognitive breakup distress was positively associated with surveilling and displaying righteous self-centeredness, as well as coping by focusing on the ex, seeking social support, and solitude. Personal growth positively associated with intermittent reinforcement, walking on eggshells, and righteous self-centeredness, as well as the coping strategies positive distraction and seeking social support. Thus, the combination of displaying righteous self-centeredness, walking on eggshells, and productive coping associated with the highest levels of personal growth. Walking on eggshells and seeking social support also predicted heightened appreciation of relationships and increased sensitivity toward others after the breakup. Coping through positive distractions was also positively related to increased sensitivity to others. The final chapter discusses findings across both studies and outlines directions for future research on toxic relationship behaviors.

Experiences of perceived racial discrimination are all too common for Asian Americans living in the United States. While there is research demonstrating the negative impact of discrimination on individual well-being, there is a scarcity of literature addressing the potential associations between discrimination and family relationships outcomes, particularly the relationships between Asian American emerging adults and their parents. Drawing from family and stress theories, it was hypothesized that perceived discrimination, including blatant and subtle forms of discrimination, would be negatively associated with various aspects of relationship quality and that these associations would be mediated by general stress. The present study collected data from 137 Asian American parent-adult children dyads to examine the associations between discrimination, general stress, and parent-child relationship quality. Actor and partner associations were also tested in order to account for the interdependence of dyadic data. Results showed support for the negative direct association between discrimination and relationship quality for both children and parents, as well as the mediator role of stress. Findings from this study also have important implications for counseling to promote the mental health of Asian American emerging adults and families.

Given the severity of risks that accompany the current COVID-19 pandemic, many are experiencing negative psychological effects, such as increased symptoms of depression and anxiety (i.e., mental health distress). As the COVID-19 pandemic continues to impress upon society, it is pertinent to assess the ways in which COVID-19 may be impacting first responders; many of which who are responsible for tending to the safety and wellbeing of communities during this time. However, little is known about how medical first responders may be experiencing COVID-19 related stress, whether this impacts their experience with symptoms of mental health distress, and furthermore whether this stress is different for those in different countries. As such, the present study sought to assess the association between COVID-19 related stress and symptoms of mental health distress in medical first responders for those living in Australia and the United States. Further, given the positive effects romantic relationships have on an individual’s interpersonal functioning, the potential moderating effect of perceived relationship commitment was examined. A total number of 79 participants completed the study. Contrary to hypotheses, results showed that there was no significant association between COVID-19 related stress and symptoms of distress, nor was relationship commitment found to moderate symptoms of distress. Implications of this study have the potential to guide mental health professionals working with medical first responders who are experiencing symptoms of distress, particularly in times of crises similar to that of COVID-19.

Emerging adulthood represents a liminal space between adolescence and adulthood. Attachment with a romantic partner is commonly developed during this time; however, the nature of the dating relationship often remains ambiguous and/or undefined. Dating provides emerging adults the opportunity to develop their romantic competence and navigate these particular attachment relationships. Conflict, and how it is managed, is a critical variable during this time and differentiates between couples who progress in their relationship from those who terminate. What is more, partners may become stuck in destructive cycles, or patterns, of conflict (i.e., demand-withdrawal). Using the theoretical frameworks of attachment theory and emotionally focused couples therapy, this study’s goal it to examine the impact of a brief writing-intervention on relational quality, secure attachment behaviors (i.e., accessibility, responsiveness, and engagement) and attachment dimensions (i.e., anxiety, avoidance). Sixty-seven participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions for a two-wave study: (1) a treatment condition that was provided an educational presentation regarding couples’ negative cycles of interaction and attachment needs, followed by a guided writing task; (2) a comparison condition that only received the educational presentation; and (3) a control condition that received neither the educational presentation nor the writing task. Hypotheses proposed that participants in the treatment condition would experience increased relational quality, secure attachment behaviors (for both themselves and their partner), and greater secure attachment (i.e., decreased anxiety and avoidance) across time compared to the comparison and control conditions. Data did not support the hypotheses. These findings offer important implications for the development of future brief couples’ interventions and aim to generate future research.

Applying interdependence and critical consciousness theories, this study adopted a two-phase sequential explanatory mixed-methods design with dyadic data to examine three overarching research questions on Asian-White interracial heterosexual couples’ well-being, in particular, psychological distress and relationship satisfaction. First, as part of Phase 1, this study examined actor and partner associations between perceived blatant or subtle racism against the Asian partner and well-being. Second, whether critical consciousness moderated the associations between perceived racism and well-being was examined. Third, as part of Phase 2, this study engaged participants to interpret how critical consciousness may have shaped their own and their partner’s well-being in the face of racism.

In Phase 1, 191 self-identified Asian-White interracial heterosexual couples (N = 382 individuals) completed an online survey. In Phase 2, a subsample of eight couples (n = 16 individuals) purposefully selected from Phase 1 completed semi-structured individual interviews (Mlength = 79 minutes). Results from Actor-Partner Interdependence Models revealed positive actor associations between perceived blatant and subtle racism with psychological distress for both Asian and White partners, and a negative actor association between perceived subtle racism and relationship satisfaction for White partners. Asian partners’ higher critical consciousness placed them at risk for greater psychological distress and lower relationship satisfaction if they perceived more frequent blatant racism; however, White partner’s critical consciousness mitigated the positive associations between Asian partners’ perceived blatant or subtle racism and psychological distress. Thematic analysis for multiple perspective interviews from Phase 2 highlighted that both Asian and White partners perceived racism as intersectional and manifesting at interpersonal, relational, and systemic levels. Participants highlighted the eroding effects of subtle racism in comparison to blatant racism and how higher critical consciousness facilitated White partners to empathize with and support Asian partners to cope with the negative impact of racism.

This study offers an empirical understanding of Asian-White interracial heterosexual couples’ well-being in a relationship context. Counseling psychologists and other mental health professionals working with couples can draw from this study’s implications to promote critical consciousness in White partners and enhance communication on racism-related topics to promote both Asian and White partners’ well-being.

Despite the population of transgender individuals in the United States doubling

from 2011 to 2016, this population is one of the most understudied in psychological

science. Of the available research, the associations between gender congruence, defined

as an individual’s body matching their gender identity, and well-being have been

examined, particularly demonstrating positive associations between gender congruence

and overall life satisfaction. However, there remains a dearth of research on the possible

associations between gender congruence and relational well-being - particularly sexual

satisfaction - and possible moderating effects of the internal negative feelings regarding

one’s identity (internalized transphobia). To address these gaps in the literature, this study

gathered data from 165 binary transgender men. While there was not an effect of gender

congruence on sexual satisfaction, internalized transphobia was found to moderate this

association such that individuals who reported high internalized transphobia and high

gender congruence reported the highest sexual satisfaction. Results of this study highlight

the existing literature on the negative associations between internalized transphobia and

well-being for transgender individuals. Implications for counselors are discussed,

including advocacy efforts and implementation of techniques to facilitate growth and

resilience to help transgender clients navigate the negative effects of internalized

transphobia.

Personality is a relevant and applicable research topic now more than ever; because of the Internet, self-report measures of personality are becoming increasingly accessible. Although now widely available for personal application, personality inventories are not often examined in the context of their associations with other factors. Specifically, there exists a gap in the research on personality and its associations with philosophical belief. Based on a sample of 88 individuals, correlations between the Big Five and Philosophy Dichotomy Test were examined in order to investigate the associations between personality traits and philosophical belief. Agreeableness was found to be negatively associated with the sensuality, values, metaphysical, and societal axes, corresponding to higher levels of hedonism, rationalism, materialism, and egoism. These findings suggest that personality as measured by the Big Five and philosophical belief are somewhat associated. Limitations and future directions are presented.

Individuals in a romantic relationship may avoid discussing certain topics with their partner, often to avoid relational and emotional risk. This strategy is known as topic avoidance and may be an important factor for individuals in turbulent romantic relationship to consider due to the importance of communicating with a partner. The associations between characteristics such as openness, relationship satisfaction, and perceived partner unresponsiveness, and topic avoidance have not been directly studied within dogmatism literature. However, dogmatism, defined as a person’s relative openness (or closedness) to new information, may be an important construct associated with topic avoidance that strengthens the associations between perceived partner unresponsiveness, and topic avoidance, and weakens the association between openness, relationship satisfaction, and topic avoidance. Using data from 334 individuals in romantic relationships, results revealed that perceived partner unresponsiveness was positively associated with State of the Relationship, relationship satisfaction was positively associated with Conflict-Inducing and Negative Life Experiences, such that as scores on relationship satisfaction and perceived partner unresponsiveness increased, topic avoidance scores also increased. Openness was not associated with Topic Avoidance. Additionally, as predicted, dogmatism moderated the association between relationship satisfaction and State of the Relationship Topic Avoidance, the associations between perceived partner unresponsiveness and State of the Relationship Topic Avoidance and Negative Life Experiences Topic Avoidance. This research has important implications for clinicians working with individuals who present with relational concerns

and exhibit dogmatic behavior. Limitations and future directions are discussed.

The purpose of this study was to examine the association between characteristics of the symptomatology change curve (i.e., initial symptomatology, rate of change, curvature) and final treatment outcome. The sample consisted of community clients (N = 492) seen by 204 student therapists at a training clinic. A multilevel approach to account for therapist effects was followed. Linear, quadratic, and cubic trajectories of anxiety and depression symptomatology, as assessed by the Shorter Psychotherapy and Counseling Evaluation (sPaCE; Halstead, Leach, & Rust, 2007), were estimated. The multilevel quadratic trajectory best fit the data and depicted a descending curve (partial “U”-shaped). The quadratic growth parameters (intercept, slope, quadratic) were then used as predictors of both symptom change and reliable improvement in general symptomatology (pre- to post-treatment), as assessed by the Outcome Questionnaire-45.2 (OQ-45.2; Lambert, Hansen, Umpress, Lunen, Okiishi et al., 1996). The quadratic growth parameters of depression and anxiety showed predictive power for both symptom change and reliable improvement in general symptomatology. Patterns for two different successful outcomes (1-change in general symptomatology and 2-reliable improvement) were identified. For symptom change, successful outcomes followed a pattern of low initial levels of depression and anxiety, high initial rates of change (slope), and high (flattening after initial drop) curvature, and the pattern applied to both within- and between-therapist levels. For reliable improvement at within-therapist level, successful outcomes followed a pattern of high initial rate of change (slope) and high curvature. For reliable improvement at between-therapist level, successful outcomes were associated with a pattern of low initial levels of depression and anxiety. Implications for clinical practice are discussed.

Emotional support messages can benefit recipients; however, verbal and nonverbal aspects of these messages can vary in effectiveness, and the process of communicating support can be stressful to some supporters. One potential behavior that may yield more effective support messages for recipients while reducing anxiety and stress for supporters is message planning. Thus, planning theory is used to test whether planning influences message effectiveness, nonverbal delivery of messages, self-reported anxiety, and physiological stress markers. Additionally, an individual’s trait-level reticence and prior support experiences are predicted to moderate the effects of message planning. One hundred laboratory participants were assigned to either a planning condition or writing distraction task and completed a series of self-report and physiological measures before, during, and after recording an emotional support message to a friend who had hypothetically been diagnosed with a serious form of cancer. Subsequently, a sample of one hundred cancer patients viewed the laboratory participants’ videos to provide message effectiveness ratings and four trained coders provided data on nonverbal behaviors from these recorded messages. Findings showed planning leads to more effective messages; however, it also leads to supporters engaging in success bias and inflation bias. Planning also increased vocal fluency, but not other nonverbal behaviors. Likewise, planning attenuated heart rate reactivity, but not other physiological markers. In general, experience and reticence did not moderate these main effects. Theoretical, practical, clinical, pedagogical, and methodological implications are discussed.