This is a comparative study of two advanced ordination rituals, Daoist chuanshou (conferral of ordination rank) and Buddhist abhiṣeka (guanding) in the mid-late Tang and Five Dynasties (763-979). I analyzed a number of not-well-studied Daoist ritual protocols in the early medieval period, and revealed that rituals recast gender and fostered monastic relations. On the other hand, relying on both canonical materials and a manuscript preserved in Japan that recorded an abhiṣeka performed during the Tang dynasty in 839 C.E., I demonstrated how the canonical prescriptions of Indian origin, with modified actions and reinterpreted meaning, were transformed to respond to the Chinese religious and social environment. Having examined the language of the texts and the step of the rituals, I interpreted how these rituals were made sense in their own religious context, and compared their frame, structure, modality, symbol, and meaning.

Ordination rite concerns the transmission of religious knowledge and authority, and the establishment of religious identity. It is in the relationship between the individual body and the community that Daoists and Buddhists found the form of apprenticeship that led to the embodiment of the community. The mastery of religious knowledge within the community––scriptures, register, mantras, and precepts, etc., was known only through the actual ritual practice. In other words, the ritual body became the locus for coordination of all levels of bodily, social, and cosmological experience via the dialectic of objectification and embodiment in the ordination rites. As the ritualized bodies, those who were ordained coherently comprised the community, which in turn remolded them with dynamically and diversely shaped identities.

This dissertation investigates how Yuan zaju drama reshaped Chinese culture by bridging the gap between an inherently oral tradition of popular performance and the written tradition of literati, when traditional Chinese political, social, cultural structures underwent remarkable transformation under alien rule in the Yuan. It focuses on texts dated from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century by literati writers about playwrights and performers that have been treated by most scholars merely as sources of bio-bibliographical information. I interpret them, however, as cultural artifacts that reveal how Yuan drama caused a shift in the mentality of the elite. My study demonstrates that Yuan drama stimulated literati thought, redefined literati self-identity, and introduced a new significance to the act of writing and the function of text. Moreover, the emergence of a great number of successful female performers challenged the gendered roles of women that had been standardized by the traditional Confucian patriarchal system. This careful uncovering of overlooked materials contributes to a better understanding of the social and cultural world of early modern China.

My dissertation primarily investigates the vast literary corpus of “Qiantang meng”

錢塘夢 (A dream by Qiantang River, 1499, QTM hereafter), the earliest preserved

specimen of the Chinese vernacular story of the “courtesan” 煙粉 category, which

appears first in the mid-Hongzhi 弘治period (1488-1505). The story treats a Song

scholar Sima You 司馬槱 (?) who traveled in Qiantang and dreamed of a legendary Su

Xiaoxiao 蘇小小, a well-educated and talented courtesan who supposedly lived during

the Southern Qi 南齊 (479-520). Fundamentally, I am concerned with how and why an

early medieval five-character Chinese poem, questionably attributed to Su Xiaoxiao

herself, developed across the later period of pre-modern Chinese literary history into an

extensive repertoire that retold the romantic stories in a variety of distinctive literary

genres: poems, lyric songs, essays, dramas, ballads, vernacular stories, miscellaneous

notes, biographical sketches, etc. The thematic interest of my research is to evaluate how

travel and dream experiences interactively form a mode whose characteristics could help

develop a clearer understanding of biji 筆記 (miscellaneous notes) as a genre which is

representational and presentational, exhibiting a metadramatic textual pastiche that

collects both fact and fiction. The timeless popularity of QTM storylines reflect and

express the trope of the “travel and dream” experience. This is something of a “living”

complex of elements through which a textual community in later generations can

reconstruct their authorial and cultural identity by encountering, remembering and

reproducing those elements in the form of autobiographical and biographical expression

of a desiring subject. Travel and dream experiences are cross-referenced, internally

dialogical, mutually infiltrating, and even metaphorically interchangeable. They are

intertwined to create a liminal realm of pastiches in which we can better examine how the

literati in the Yuan (1271-1368), Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties

formed their own views about a past which shapes and is shaped by both collective and

individual memory. Such retellings both construct and challenge our understanding of the

complex networks of lexical and thematic exchange in the colloquial literary landscape

during the late imperial period.